Lacquer Art in Asian countries

※ Technique names in " "

Bhutan

by Kenta Takeshige

In Bhutan, lacquer is called Se.
The origin of Bhutanese lacquer art is unknown. It is believed to have come from Tibet. Because the ceramic industry was still rather basic at the time but the country was blessed with forest resources, people used lacquerware made from wood daily. This wood base was shaped by woodturning. They carried their own lacquer-cup on the inside of their traditional dress at chest height and used it when offered tea or alcohol by their hosts. This cup is called Phob locally.

Located in the northeast, Trashi Yangtse is the center of Bhutanese lacquer art. The Traditional Crafts Institute (Zorig Chusum), a governmental craft school, is located there and is working hard to prepare the next generation of artisans.

In Bhutan, the method of collecting lacquer sap is different from that of other Asian countries. There is the method to squeeze sap from young seeds on one hand and the method directly applying the liquid that exudes from the petioles on the other. For each method, different species of trees are used. With those tree species, lacquer sap cannot be obtained from the trunks. A tree species that exudes lacquer sap from the trunk also has been confirmed to exist in Bhutan so there might still be more species of lacquer trees.

Bhutanese lacquer technique

Bhutan's lacquer technique is "Rubbing Lacquer": raw lacquer is rubbed directly by finger. This technique avoids waste as much as possible since the amount of collected lacquer is small. The presence of figures in wood is traditionally valued. Those figures represent auspiciousness. A bright, transparent coating is preferred over an opaque coating to bring out the best in these figures. For the first layer of lacquer, butter is mixed with the raw lacquer that has been squeezed from seeds to reduce the amount of lacquer absorbed by the wood. This will result into a brighter finish. The next layers are also with raw lacquer collected from the seeds but no longer mixed with butter. This procedure is repeated until the appropriate luster appears. For the final finish, high-quality raw lacquer that exudes from the petioles directly is applied and rubbed in.

China [⇡ back]

by Kenta Takeshige

In China, lacquer is called Da Qi 大漆.
Up to now the oldest lacquerware discovered in China dates back to the Neolithic era. During the Warring States period, the production of lacquer had been greatly upscaled, and lacquerware with elaborate decoration appeared for the first time. In those early days, surface decorations were in the form of Lacquer Paintings "描漆" and inlays. Black lacquer was made by adding carbon to the refined sap, yellow by adding orpiment, and red by mixing in mercury sulfide (cinnabar). These were the colors used in ancient Chinese lacquer paintings; until recent years only a limited number of colors could be produced, because the original color of lacquer outweighs the colors of the pigments.

Chinese lacquer techniques

The origin of Mother-of-Pearl "螺鈿", a technique for inlay of shell pieces on lacquer, is not clear. Dry Lacquer "脱胎 or 夾紵" is a technique that uses a mold of wood, soil, or plaster. Onto this mold linen cloth was pasted with glue lacquer to make a foundation. This technique appeared in the Warring States period and led to massive production during the Han period. It made it possible to create complex shapes and was also used to create Buddhist statues. The Buddhist statue at Luoyang White Horse Temple, which is considered to be the oldest Buddhist temple in China, was made using this technique. A technique of carving patterns on a lacquered surface with a blade, using lacquer as an adhesive, and dropping gold leaf or gold powder into carved lines, called Gold Inlay "鎗金", was developed in the Song dynasty. Many other lacquer techniques also originated in China and spread throughout Asia. All Asian lacquer crafts are based on the lacquer art developed in China.

Carved Lacquer

Carved Lacquer "剔漆" or "彫漆" is a lacquer technique outstanding developed in China. In the Han dynasty, Piled Lacquer "堆漆" was conceived to form reliefs by repeatedly applying lacquer. This technique continued to develop during the Tang and Song dynasties, adding carving: lacquer was repeatedly covered in multiple layers until it was thick enough to be sculpted and carved. Using red lacquer it is called "剔紅", with black lacquer it is called "剔黒". If different colors of lacquer are applied in different layers, then cutting through them would reveal the contrast in color. This technique is called "剔彩".

The technique Guri "剔犀" or "犀皮彫" was named after the rhinoceros horn. It was called as such because the cross section has a texture effect that is very similar to that of a rhinoceros horn. It depicts bracken-shaped curved patterns.

Carved lacquer was most thriving in the 13th and 15th centuries. Recently, there have been many attempts to practice traditional lacquer art as a contemporary artistic expression.

~Other Chinese lacquer techniques~

※ Names in ( ) are the same or similar techniques in Japan. English translation of these technique names by Takeshige Kenta

Mono-colored Lacquerware "一色漆器": solid, single-color lacquering without decoration. (Kuro-nuri), (Shu-nuri)
Lacquering "罩漆": a technique of finishing with transparent lacquer. (Tame-nuri)
Gold Dust Lacquer "洒金/砂金漆": a technique of pasting thin pieces of gold on the lacquer surface or sprinkling coarse gold powder, and finishing with transparent lacquer. (Nashiji)
Gold Drawing "描金/泥金画漆": a technique of drawing patterns on the lacquer surface, and using silk wool as tampon to fix the metal powder on the patterns. (Keshi Maki-e)
※ Lacquer crafts of Gold Drawing are among the artifacts recovered from the Warring States period in China. These finds counter the assumption this technique originated in Japan.

Filled Lacquer "填漆": a technique of engraving patterns on the lacquer surface, and filling the patterns with lacquer of different colors. (Kinma)
Carved and Filled Lacquer "雕填/填漆戧金": patterns are carved on the lacquer surface, and the outlines of the patterns are emphasized with gold. The inside of the patterns are filled with colored lacquer. A technique that combines Filled Lacquer and Gold Inlay.

Rhinoceros Skin "犀皮漆": first, egg white is added to make a thick and uneven lacquer layer on the surface. Then, various colored lacquer layers are applied on top of this. Finally, by abrading it until even and smooth the covered design reappears. (Kawari-nuri), (Tsugaru Kara-nuri), (Kiso Tsuishu-nuri)
Carved Chalk or Coromandel Lacquer or Bantam Work "款彩/大雕填/刻灰": a technique for large furniture and folding screens. Firstly, applying chalk to the base material as a foundation. Next, lacquer is applied over it. In the end, patterns are drawn on the lacquer surface and the outline of the patterns are carved into the underlying chalk layer. Therefore it is called Carved Chalk. The carved patterns are filled with various colored lacquer and metal powder. The white foundation of the chalk brightens the color of the applied lacquer.

Gold Powder Lacquer/Gilding "渾金漆/貼金箔": is created by first covering the entire lacquer surface with gold leaf or powder, forming a gold background. Then gold patterns are drawn on top of this gold, also in gold. The outline of the patterns are highlighted with black lacquer. In other words, a base of one color of gold lacquer is used, and a pattern is decorated with a different color of gold lacquer, and the gold pattern is then outlined with black lacquer.

Hundred Treasures Inlay "百宝嵌": inlay technique with gems, ivory, coral and jade on lacquer.
Flattened Metal "平脱": inlay technique using patterns cut out of gold, silver, or other sheet metal on lacquer. (Hyomon)

Japan [⇡ back]

by Kenta Takeshige

In Japan, lacquer is called Urushi 漆.
Lacquer trees Urushi no Ki are believed to occur naturally in Japan. Lacquer has been used since the Jomon period. By this time, people discovered the adhesiveness and protective power of lacquer and used it to strengthen and safeguard weapons and tools.
A masterpiece of ancient Japanese lacquer art made during the Asuka period is Tamamushi no Zushi (玉虫厨子), exhibited at Horyuji Temple. The technique "Makkinru" on Kin-Gin Denkazari no Kara-Tachi (金銀鈿荘唐大刀), which was handed down to the Shosoin-Treasures of the Nara period, is believed to be linked to the origin of "Maki-e" in Japan.
At the same time "Raden" was imported from the Tang dynasty.

※ There are various theories and arguments that these two famous works; Tamamushi no Zushi & Kin-Gin Denkazari no Kara-Tachi, were produced in foreign countries and imported into Japan at the time.

Medieval times

Japanese culture flourished during the Heian period. The Japanese sense of cherishing the beauty of nature and celebrating the seasons brought to life the Maki-e technique that enables those delicate expressions. In addition, high-precision metal powder manufacturing technology supported advanced Maki-e works.

During Heian period, "Togidashi Maki-e" was invented, developed and completed. In the latter half of this period, "Hira Maki-e" was also produced. In the Kamakura period, carved lacquer "Tsuishu" was imported from Song dynasty and imitated through "Kamakura-bori", which instead of carving the lacquer, sculpts the wooden base. After the technique of Hira Maki-e was perfectioned, "Taka Maki-e" appeared. During the Muromachi period, the "Chinkin" technique was imported from Ming dynasty. Around this time, the most difficult Maki-e technique, "Shishiai Togidashi Maki-e" was born. During the Azuchi-Momoyama period, the lacquer industry grew rapidly due to trade with Europe, and Nanban lacquerware for export was produced using plenty of Raden and Maki-e techniques. In the Edo period, the development of particular lacquer technologies in specific areas was a booming industry and encouraged by the feudal system. Distinctive local lacquer technologies in different parts of Japan are still typical nowadays. Despite the isolation policy during the Edo period, some goods such as lacquerware were nevertheless exported by the Dutch.

Modern to present

After World War II, Japanese lacquer art faded away with the passage of time. In general the demand for domestic lacquerware has decreased but today the country is trying to promote lacquer art once more. It is encouraging to see a new generation of young artists taking on lacquer art as another way of expression rising.

It's been a while since we've heard the term "Digital Crafts," which refers to the fusion of traditional craftsmanship and digital technology through the use of digital devices. Lacquer art is no exception. There's no doubt that we're living in an age where craftsmanship requires evolution.

3D printer: Create a substrate for lacquer art, or use this base for plaster molds, etc.
CNC router: A woodworking router obtains data information and produces woodwork.
Laser cutting: Cutting out decorative patterns for Raden, mother-of-pearl technique.

Another concern is that Japan came to depend upon China for the import of lacquer required for lacquer work. Efforts are made though to plant lacquer trees, harvest and distill lacquer sap again domestically.

~Maki-e techniques~

(Quote from Glossary of Urushi Terms, “Project for Conservation Works of Japanese Art in Foreign Collections I” by Tokyo National Research Institute of Cultural Properties, 1998)

Togidashi Maki-e: designs are drawn with lacquer and Maki-e powder is sprinkled on them. Then, after the lacquer has dried, another layer (or layers) of lacquer is coated over the surface which is then abraded with an abrasive, such as charcoal, until the design is revealed. Then the surface can also be polished.

Hira Maki-e: designs are drawn with lacquer and Maki-e powder is sprinkled on them. Then, after the lacquer has dried, the powders are fixed in their place with lacquer. The design is then polished to a gloss with fine stone powder.

Taka Maki-e: lacquer or lacquer foundation material is used to raise designs. Gold or silver powder is then sprinkled on the surface to highlight the patterns.

Shishiai Togidashi Maki-e: lacquer or lacquer foundation material is used to raise patterns. Then Maki-e powder is sprinkled on the surface. This is followed by coating lacquer over the entire surface. Finally, an abrasive such as charcoal is used to abrade the surface and reveal the design which can then be polished.

Keshi (-fun) Maki-e: a simplest Maki-e technique in which patterns are drawn with lacquer and Keshi-fun powder is rubbed on gently with silk wool. After the powders have been fixed, they may be finished without burnishing.

Kintsugi

History of Kintsugi

"Kintsugi" is a technique for repairing ceramics and lacquerware using lacquer that has been handed down from ancient times. Jomon period pottery may show traces of repairing the damaged part with lacquer, which can be considered as a primitive Kintsugi.

There is a bowl called 馬蝗絆 (Horse Locust Bond). This bowl was given to Taira no Shigemori by his Chinese colleague in the 12th century. After that, it became the property of Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa in the 15th century during the Muromachi period. Yoshimasa found cracks in the bottom of the bowl, so he sent it to China requesting a replacement bowl. As there was no such excellent celadon bowl in China any more, they stopped the cracks in the bowl with staples and sent it back to Japan. The staples struck in this bowl are like huge locusts. The Shogun was very pleased to receive the repaired bowl. In Japan at that time, Maki-e already existed, so the repair method was replaced with Japanese style using Urushi & Maki-e.

The artistic value of Kintsugi has been cherished by Tea Masters who accepted the repaired ceramics as they are: visually damaged but still fully functional. Later Tea Masters started to pursue the beauty in Kintsugi: artistic and aesthetic value increases through repairs. The biggest feature is to enjoy the scars as a scenery by decorating the seams with gold, silver, or vermilion lacquer, etc. Instead of making it intact, accept its history and create a new harmony.

Different methods or approaches in Kintsugi

If you have all the broken pieces, of course use them all. This is called "Tomo-tsugi", Joint of Origin. Kintsugi using pieces of ceramics that are different from the main body is called "Yobi-tsugi", Joint by Call. There was a time when this Yobi-tsugi was also used as a symbolic wedding gift: since different pieces are combined, a technique to bond them well is absolutely necessary.

Lacquer as a Kintsugi material

The Kintsugi technique takes advantage of the many properties of lacquer. It has many uses, including repairing cracks, filling gaps, patching missing parts, and gluing broken parts. For this reason, lacquer is used as a finishing material and as a base for metal powders and other materials. Lacquer can be used on its own as an adhesive, but it is also mixed with other materials such as wheat flour, rice flour, earth, or clay to form a paste. In this way, lacquer is used as an adhesive and filler.

Each process of Kintsugi is short, but it may take several months to complete one Kintsugi object because it takes time to harden. Lacquer attaches well on wood, bamboo, textile, paper and leather, but it does not easily stick to glass or metal, so an additional process such as "Yaki-tsuke", baking process is required.

Korea [⇡ back]

by Kenta Takeshige

In Korean, lacquer is Ottchil.
The technique of "Mother-of-Pearl" is the main lacquer technique on the Korean Peninsula. It was introduced from China during its Tang dynasty which accords with the Silla era of Korea. During the Goryeo dynasty that followed in Korea, it was continually influenced by the Mother-of-Pearl technique from the Chinese Song dynasty. However, the lacquer art on the Korean Peninsula gradually evolved into its unique national style.

Korean inlay techniques

There aren’t many examples of Goryeo Mother-of-Pearl lacquerware which have been passed on to this day. Most of them were manufactured for Buddhist practice. The typical Goryeo Mother-of-Pearl is featuring chrysanthemum which refers to not only beauty and fragrance but also longevity. The floral is often combined with arabesque patterns over the entire surface. On the edge, there are bead-patterns inlays. Precious metal wires were laid into the stem of flowers and boundary lines. Another feature is that the tortoiseshell was inlaid as well. The color effect was enhanced by using colors at the back of the tortoiseshell.

Goryeo lacquerware is described as luxurious and delicate. Lacquerware in the Joseon dynasty was influenced by Confucianism opting for more free and natural expressions freed of the predominant stylistic beauty of its predecessor.

Inlay of Mother-of-Pearl generally refers to shell pieces, but technically it is not limited to shell: fangs/horns, tortoiseshell, metals, crystals, ambers, and other jewelries can be used just as well as decorations.
※ There is a theory that this inlay technique already existed in ancient Egypt and was brought to China by western countries through the Silk Road during the Tang dynasty.

Myanmar [⇡ back]

by Kenta Takeshige

In Myanmar, lacquer is called Thit Si.
It is not certain when lacquer art was performed at first. There are different theories stating that it was either imported from China or that engineers were invited from neighboring Thailand.

Bagan

From the 1050s to 1287, the Pagan Kingdom prospered in Pagan (present-day Bagan). The ancient city of Bagan is still the center of Myanmar lacquer art. Bamboo is mainly used as the base material. The horsehair substrate, which is made by weaving the hair of the horse's tail into the bamboo, is a unique base material in Bagan. The lacquer art education institution in Bagan was established in 1924 as a governmental lacquerware training center. The school was upgraded over time to Bagan Lacquerware Institute first and has become the Lacquerware Technology College of Bagan, Myanmar today.

Burmese lacquer techniques

The gold leaf technique of Myanmar is called "Shwei Zawa". This gold leaf technique lets the decoration emerge by rinsing with water. For starters, a decorative motif is drawn on a black lacquer surface. Next, water-soluble glue is applied to this black background. Then, the entire surface is covered with a thin layer of lacquer. This layer is wiped off and the gold leaf is pressed on top of it. Later on, by rinsing with a large amount of water the glue will loosen. Thus the gold leaf in the background will come off while the decorative motif in gold leaf remains. It is similar to Thailand’s gold leaf technique Lai Rot Nam.

Another Myanmar lacquer technique "Kanyit", similar to Japanese Kinma technique, uses Acacia sap to mask the lacquer surface. Patterns are carved with a blade, and colored lacquer is applied into the incisions. After the lacquer has hardened, the colored lacquer - other than that in the carved parts - is washed away due to the Acacia sap masking. This process is repeated, always in the same order: vermilion first, next green and finally yellow colored lacquer.

The name Kinma in Japanese is a little confusing: first of all, Kinma refers to Betel, a plant of the Piperaceae family. But Kinma also refers to a luxury product for chewing on, made by slicing and drying Areca nut (Palm nut) and Betel leaves coated with water-dissolved lime. On top of all that, the lacquerware for storing this luxury product is also called Kinma as does the technique to produce this lacquerware.

Another Myanmar technique is to mix cow dung and/or ash with lacquer to make it thick and clayey, and attach it to the lacquer surface to create a relief. Gold leaf is applied to finish this relief. This technique to liven up the foundation is called "Thayoe".

Ryukyu Kingdom [⇡ back]

by Kenta Takeshige

The Okinawa Islands, located at the southernmost tip of Japan, share a history of 500 years of the Ryukyu dynasty. They have formed a distinctive lacquer art culture through the combination of steering the balance with the national powers of China and Japan on one hand and actively incorporating different cultures and technologies by trade with other Asian countries on the other. In Ryukyu, the royal government organization set up the Kaizuri Magistrate's Office to provide production quality control for lacquerware.

Ryukyu lacquer techniques

Ryukyu lacquer art specializes in the Mother-of-Pearl technique called "Somata". Only the beautiful part of the natural color of the shell pieces are used, and the entire pattern is expressed with shell scraped thin. Gold leaf and color are applied at the back of the thin shell to develop colors other than natural colors. In the days Somata was actively produced, gold and silver metal sheet was used together with shell pieces. Somata was also exported to China and Korea, and influenced Ming, Qing, and Joseon's Mother-of-Pearl technique. The Ryukyu Raden technique was long lost in the darkness of history, but in recent years this lost technique has once again been made known to the world.

Another characteristic technique of Ryukyu lacquer art is called "Tsuikin". Mix lacquer and pigment, and knead it thinly like pizza dough. Cut out the pattern from this dough and fix it on the lacquer surface.

From "The History of Kakuman Lacquerware" https://kakuman.jp/
Before the war, Wakasa Town was Okinawa's only "nuimunmachi" (lacquerware town). According to Mr. Kadena, founder of Kakuman Lacquerware and fourth-generation owner of Kadena Lacquerware: "All over town, on top of the stone walls, Kucha (Okinawa mudstone) used as Shitaji-base, was drying on tile trays, and roughly cut Erythrina variegata デイゴの木 waited under the eaves for its turn. From inside the houses, the sound of wood turning could be heard, and the distinctive smell of lacquer wafted through the air."

Thailand [⇡ back]

by Kenta Takeshige

In Thailand, lacquer is called Yang Rak or Ton Rak.
The history of Thai lacquer art is unclear: it is believed that the Kern tribe, while moving from southern China to Chiang Mai in northern Thailand, brought along lacquer art. The Thai word for lacquerware is still Kreung Kern, a remnant of this conviction.

In 1296 the Kingdom of Lan Na was founded in the Chiang Mai area in northern Thailand. It became the center of Thai lacquer art. The lacquer crafts produced in this region are called Lan Na lacquer and are mostly items for everyday use, using woven or ringed bamboo as substrates. Later on, during the Ayutthaya dynasty, arts & crafts developed to a high degree under the patronage of the royal family. Especially in the late Ayutthaya era, Thai lacquer art reached its golden age. Gorgeous lacquer crafts were made using the techniques of Mother-of-Pearl and gold leaf painting which is called "Lai Rot Nam".

Thai lacquer techniques

This technique uses a wooden base coated with several layers of black lacquer as a background. The desired design is then traced onto this, and any areas that should remain black are overcoated with a yellow, viscous, water-soluble adhesive. The next step is to apply a thin layer of lacquer to the surface, and once it is semi-dry, gold leaf is applied to the entire surface. After approximately 20 hours, the piece is washed with water and the viscous adhesive is removed, revealing the black background and leaving the gold leaf fixed with lacquer in the areas not covered with adhesive.
Due to the application and washing of gold leaf, this technique is called "Lai Pit Thong Rot Nam" (water-based gold leaf pattern), but is often shortened to "Lai Rot Nam" (water-based pattern).

Other Thai lacquer techniques include "Lai Kam Lan Na" and "Lai Khut". Lai Kam Lan Na is a kind of scratch painting: a free drawing is scratched into the gold leaf with a needle.
Lai Khut, similar to Myanmar lacquer technique Kanyit, was introduced to Japan during the Edo period and transformed into the Kagawa regional technique named Kinma.

Because sap collection is prohibited in Thailand at present to protect lacquer trees, Thailand has to import all lacquer sap from Myanmar.

Vietnam [⇡ back]

by Kenta Takeshige

An encounter between Vietnamese lacquer and French painting

In Vietnam, lacquer is called Sơn Ta.
Vietnamese lacquer painting, known as "Sơn Mài", is a relatively young art form that emerged in the 1930s under the influence of the École des Beaux-Arts (now Vietnam University of the Arts) in Hanoi in 1925, where French artists introduced Western modern art techniques. While lacquer painting itself is modern, the use of lacquer in Vietnam dates back over 2,000 years to the Đông Sơn culture. Lacquer art was applied to daily objects, architecture, and religious spaces.

At the Hanoi art school, students were trained in Western methods such as perspective, three-dimensionality, and realism, which they combined with traditional Vietnamese motifs, colors, and materials. This fusion gave rise to lacquer painting as a new artistic medium. Early works often depicted natural beauty, while later, during the socialist era, the art form served ideological purposes.

Since the 1980s, however, as Vietnam opened to the world, younger generations of artists have reimagined Sơn Mài, introducing innovative techniques and placing it firmly within a contemporary artistic context.

The art typically uses traditional colors - red, black, brown, yellow, and white - with inlays of eggshell, crab, and snail shells. Innovations expanded the palette with new shades, especially greens, and added depth through subtle shading, polishing methods, and layered textures. The technique itself is highly labor-intensive: an artist builds up numerous layers of colored and clear lacquer, often interspersed with silver leaf, and then carefully polishes parts of the surface to reveal the desired image. Thus, the final painting emerges not from direct application of paint, but from the subtractive process of polishing back through the layers to uncover hidden forms and colors.

This unique blend of ancient craftsmanship and modern artistic exploration has made Vietnamese lacquer painting a distinctive, expressive, and ever-evolving art form.

Laos & Cambodia [⇡ back]

by Kenta Takeshige

The decline of French Indochina led to political struggles, causing domestic instability and turmoil. This unfavorable climate also affected the traditional lacquer crafts and ceased the transfer of lacquer technology.

The reconstruction has started gradually thanks to Ms. Matsushima Sakurako's Asian Lacquer Craft Exchange Research Project, Mr. Ounheuane Soukaseum and his atelier Mani Lacquer Ware Lao Luang Prabang in Laos and Mr. Eric & Thierry Stocker's Stocker Studio in Cambodia.